Frog Metamorphosis: A Review of Metamorphic Stages, Developmental Progression, and Influential Factors
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24191/bioenv.v1i3.43Keywords:
Anura, Gosner stage, Frog development, Life cycle, Ecological effectAbstract
Frog (Anura) is the most diverse, diversified, and ubiquitous of the three extant amphibian orders under the class Amphibia. They are distributed in across the globe, with the exception of the polar regions, some marine islands, and very dry deserts. The life cycle of a frog is a fascinating event which they go through a fascinating transition known as 'metamorphosis' as they grow from frogspawn to adult frogs. Although extensive research has been done on the life cycle and metamorphosis of frogs, there is little comparative information on different variances in its unique transformation traits during evolution among the families and factors influencing this transformational processes. Therefore, this review focuses on identifying the metamorphosis process in distinguished frog families by comparing stages of development, morphological, physiological changes and also the factors that influence their growth or metamorphosis and timing. The study conducted by reviewing about 100 sources consisting of previous scientific publications, which are primarily accessible through online journal and article publishing platforms or database. Subsequently, significant differences within the frog families have been recorded. Genetics, hormones, environmental cues, and the availability of resources are all intrinsic and extrinsic variables that influence these developmental stages. In term of future suggestions, further research are needed to undertake a comprehensive study that includes complete monitoring of frog metamorphosis and development at all phases. This would provide important insights into the genetic and molecular factors that control the timing and success of frog metamorphosis. Thus, could improve the understanding of the delicate interplay between genetics, environmental cues, and developmental processes by doing such studies.
References
Simpkins, C. (2013). Abiotic and biotic factors influencing the assemblage of tadpoles and adult anurans in coastal wallum habitats of eastern Australia. Master’s dissertation. Griffith University. https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/122.
Alexander, L. G., Lailvaux, S. P., Pechmann, J. H. K., & DeVries, P. J. (2012). Effects of salinity on early life stages of the Gulf Coast Toad, Incilius nebulifer (Anura: Bufonidae). Copeia, 2012(1), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1643/CP-09-206.
Alford, R. A., Richards, S. J., & McDonald, K. R. (2013). Amphibians, biodiversity of. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity: Second Edition, 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384719-5.00254-9.
Alger, S. J. (2013). Cicadian Rhythms: Why Does the 17-Year Cicada Emerge Like Clockwork?. Scitable by Nature Education. https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/cicadian_rhythms_why_does_the/ Accessed 19 October 2023.
Allentoft, M., & O’Brien, J. (2010). Global amphibian declines, loss of genetic diversity and fitness: A review. diversity, 2(1), 47–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d201004.
Altwegg, R., & Reyer, H.U. (2003). Patterns of natural selection on size at metamorphosis in water frogs. Evolution, 57(4), 872–882. https://doi.org/10.1554/0014-3820(2003)057.
Angilletta, M. J., Steury, T. D., & Sears, M. W. (2004). Temperature, growth rate, and body size in ectotherms: fitting pieces of a life-history puzzle. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 44(6), 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1093/ICB/44.6.498.
Atkinson, D. (1994). Temperature and organism size—A biological law for ectotherms? Advances in Ecological Research, 25(C), 1–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60212-3.
Bekhet, G. A., Abdou, H. A., Dekinesh, S. A., Hussein, H. A., & Sebiae, S. S. (2014). Biological factors controlling developmental duration, growth and metamorphosis of the larval green toad, Bufo viridis viridis. The Journal of Basic & Applied Zoology, 67(3), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBAZ.2014.09.005.
Berven, K. A. (1982). The genetic basis of altitudinal variation in the wood frog Rana sylvatica II. An experimental analysis of larval development. Oecologia, 52(3), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00367960/METRICS.
Berven, K. A., Gill, D. E., & Smith-Gill, S. J. (1979). Countergradient selection in the Green Frog, Rana clamitans. Evolution, 33(2), 609. https://doi.org/10.2307/2407784.
Bishop, C. A., Mahony, N. A., Struger, J., Ng, P., & Pettit, K. E. (1999). Anuran development, density and diversity in relation to agricultural activity in the Holland River watershed, Ontario, Canada (1990-1992). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 57(1), 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005988611661.
Bishop, C. D., Erezyilmaz, D. F., Flatt, T., Georgiou, C. D., Hadfield, M. G., Heyland, A., Hodin, J., Jacobs, M. W., Maslakova, S. A., Pires, A., Reitzel, A. M., Santagata, S., Tanaka, K., & Youson, J. H. (2006). What is metamorphosis? Integrative and Comparative Biology, 46(6), 655–661. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icl004.
Blaustein, A. R., & Johnson, P. T. J. (2003). Explaining frog deformities. Scientific American, 288(2), 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0203-60.
Boulan, L., Milán, M., & Léopold, P. (2015). The systemic control of growth. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 7(12). https://doi.org/10.1101/CSHPERSPECT.A019117.
Brenes-Soto, A., Dierenfeld, E. S., & Janssens, G. (2018). The interplay between voluntary food intake, dietary carbohydrate-lipid ratio and nutrient metabolism in an amphibian, (Xenopus laevis). PLOS ONE, 13(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208445.
Britannica. (n.d.). Metamorphosis. Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 19 October 2023. https://www.britannica.com/science/metamorphosis
Britton, D. (2019). Metamorphosis: a remarkable change. The Australian Museum. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/metamorphosis-a-remarkable-change/ Accessed 19 October 2023.
Broomhall, S. (2004). Frogs in an effluent society: Risks, remedies and responsibilities. WWF Australia.
Buchholz, D. R., Hsia, S.-C. V., Fu, L., & Shi, Y.-B. (2003). A dominant-negative thyroid hormone receptor blocks amphibian metamorphosis by retaining corepressors at target genes. Molecular And Cellular Biology, 23(19), 6750–6758. https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.23.19.6750-6758.2003.
Campinho, M. A. (2019). Teleost Metamorphosis: The role of thyroid hormone. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00383.
Carrillo, J. F. C., Santana, D. J., & Prado, C. P. A. (2023). An overview of parental care in the foam-nesting frogs of the genus Leptodactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae): current knowledge and future directions. Amphibia-Reptilia, 1, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685381-BJA10140.
Chakir, M., Chafik, A., Gibert, P., & David, J. R. (2002). Phenotypic plasticity of adult size and pigmentation in Drosophila: thermosensitive periods during development in two sibling species. Journal of Thermal Biology, 27(1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4565(01)00016-X.
Chakravarty, P., Bordoloi, S., Grosjean, S., Ohler, A., & Borkotoki, A. (2011). Tadpole morphology and table of developmental stages of Polypedates teraiensis (Dubois, 1987). Alytes, 27(3), 85–115.
Chapman, D. (2020). Tadpole to frog: development stages & metamorphosis. SAGA. https://www.saga.co.uk/magazine/home-garden/gardening/wildlife/amphibians/the-tadpole Accessed 19 October 2023.
Cheron, M., Raoelison, L., Kato, A., Ropert-Coudert, Y., Meyer, X., Macintosh, A. J. J., & Brischoux, F. (2021). Ontogenetic changes in activity, locomotion, and behavioural complexity in tadpoles. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 134(1), 165-176.
Chuliver, M., & Fabrezi, M. (2019). A developmental staging table for Physalaemus biligonigerus (Cope, 1861) (Anura: Leptodactylidae). South American Journal of Herpetology, 14(2), 150. https://doi.org/10.2994/SAJH-D-18-00005.1.
Del Pino, E. M., Ávila, M. E., Pérez, O. D., Benítez, M. S., Alarcón, I., Noboa, V., & Moya, I. M. (2004). Development of the dendrobatid frog Colostethus machalilla. International Journal of Developmental Biology, 48(7), 663–670. https://doi.org/10.1387/ijdb.041861ed.
Denver, R. J. (1997). Proximate mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 37(2), 172–184. https://doi.org/10.1093/ICB/37.2.172.
Denver, R. J. (2015). Stress hormones mediate developmental plasticity in vertebrates with complex life cycles. Neurobiology of Stress, 14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100301.
Diana, S. G., Resetarits, W. J., Schaeffer, D. J., Beckmen, K. B., & Beasley, V. R. (2000). Effects of atrazine on amphibian growth and survival in artificial aquatic communities. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 19(12), 2961-2967. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620191217.
Dreher, C. E., & Pröhl, H. (2014). Multiple sexual signals: Calls over colors for mate attraction in an aposematic, color-diverse poison frog. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/FEVO.2014.00022/ABSTRACT.
Egea‐Serrano, A., Relyea, R. A., Tejedo, M., & Torralva, M. (2012). Understanding of the impact of chemicals on amphibians: a meta-analytic review. Ecology and Evolution, 2(7), 1382–1397. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.249.
Eprilurahman, R., & Maghfiroh, N. L. (2020). The tadpole of Leptobrachium hasseltii Tschudi. 1838 (Amphibia: Anura: Megophryidae): Morphometry and larval developmental stage as identification character of species. 020023. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0015681.
Fabrezi, M., & Cruz, J. C. (2020). Evolutionary and developmental considerations of the diet and gut morphology in ceratophryid tadpoles (Anura). BMC Developmental Biology, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12861-020-00221-5.
Fabrezi, M., Quinzio, S., Goldberg, J., & De S, R. O. (2012). The development of Dermatonotus muelleri (Anura: Microhylidae: Gastrophryninae). Journal of Herpetology, 46(3), 363–380. https://doi.org/10.1670/11-194.
Faragher, S. G., & Jaeger, R. G. (2011). Tadpole bullies: examining mechanisms of competition in a community of larval anurans, 76(1), 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1139/Z97-177.
Farquharson, C., Wepener, V., & Smit, N. J. (2016). Acute and chronic effects of acidic pH on four subtropical frog species. Water SA, 42(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v42i1.07.
Fischer, E. K., Roland, A. B., Moskowitz, N. A., Vidoudez, C., Ranaivorazo, N., Tapia, E., Trauger, S. A., Vences, M., Coloma, L. A., & O’Connell, L. A. (2019). Mechanisms of convergent egg provisioning in poison frogs. Current Biology, 29(23), 4145-4151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.10.032.
Flores, A. B. A., Diesmos, A. C., & Nuňeza, O. M. (2023). Morphological description and life history of the Philippine Swamp Frog Limnonectes leytensis (Boettger, 1893). Biodiversitas, 24(1), 133–139. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d240117.
Fox, R. J., Donelson, J. M., Schunter, C., Ravasi, T., & Gaita ́n-Espitia, J. D. (2019). Beyond buying time: the role of plasticityin phenotypic adaptation to rapidenvironmental change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 374(1768).
Freda, J. (1986). The influence of acidic pond water on amphibians: A review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 30(1–2), 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00305213/METRICS.
Fu, L., Wen, L., & Shi, Y. B. (2018). Role of thyroid hormone receptor in amphibian development. Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.), 1801, 247. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7902-8_20.
Garcia, T. S., Urbina, J., Bredeweg, E. M., & Ferrari, M. C. O. (2017). Embryonic learning and developmental carry-over effects in an invasive anuran. Oecologia, 184(3), 623–631. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-017-3905-5.
Garland, T., & Kelly, S. A. (2006). Phenotypic plasticity and experimental evolution. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 209(12), 2344–2361. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02244.
Gilbert, S. F. (2000). Ecological developmental biology. (6th ed.). Sinauer Associates.
Gillis, G. B. (2013). Feeding frogs, tongues and temperature. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 216(5). https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.077776.
Giménez, L. (2006). Phenotypic links in complex life cycles: conclusions from studies with decapod crustaceans. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 46(5), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.1093/ICB/ICL010.
Girish, S., & Saidapur, S. K. (2003). Density-dependent growth and metamorphosis in the larval bronze frog Rana temporalis is influenced by genetic relatedness of the cohort. Journal of Biosciences, 28(4), 489–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02705123/METRICS.
Goldberg, J., Quinzio, S. I., Cruz, J. C., & Fabrezi, M. (2019). Intraspecific developmental variation in the life cycle of the Andean Treefrog (Boana riojana): A temporal analysis. Journal of Morphology, 280(4), 480–493. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.20958.
Goldstein, J. A., von Seckendorr Hoff, K., & Hillyard, S. D. (2017). The effect of temperature on development and behaviour of relict leopard frog tadpoles. Conservation Physiology, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/CONPHYS/COW075.
Gomez-Mestre, I., Tejedo, M., Ramayo, E., & Estepa, J. (2004). Developmental alterations and osmoregulatory physiology of a larval Anuran under osmotic stress. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 77(2), 267–274. https://doi.org/10.1086/378143.
Gómez-Mestre, I., Kulkarni, S. S., & Buchholz, D. R. (2013). Mechanisms and consequences of developmental acceleration in tadpoles responding to pond drying. PLOS ONE, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084266.
Gonçalves, M. W., Gambale, P. G., Godoy, F. R., Alves, A. A., De Almeida Rezende, P. H., Da Cruz, A. D., Maciel, N. M., Nomura, F., Bastos, R. P., De Marco, P., & De Melo E Silva, D. (2017). The agricultural impact of pesticides on Physalaemus cuvieri tadpoles (Amphibia: Anura) ascertained by comet assay. Zoologia, 34, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3897/zoologia.34.e19865.
Gonzalez, S. C., Touchon, J. C., & Vonesh, J. R. (2011). Interactions between competition and predation shape early growth and survival of two Neotropical Hylid tadpoles. Biotropica, 43(5), 633–639. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1744-7429.2010.00748.X.
Gosner, K. L. (1960). A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica, 16(23), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.2307/3890061.
Gosner, K. L., & Black, I. H. (1957). The effects of acidity on the development and hatching of New Jersey Frogs. Ecology, 38(2), 256. https://doi.org/10.2307/1931684.
Haramura, T., Eto, K., Crossland, M. R., Nishikawa, K., & Shine, R. (2022). Competition between the tadpoles of Japanese toads versus frogs. Scientific Reports 2022 12:1, 12(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05525-z.
Harkey, G. A., & Semlitsch, R. D. (1988). Effects of temperature on growth, development, and color polymorphism in the Ornate Chorus Frog Pseudacris ornata. Copeia, 1988(4), 1001. https://doi.org/10.2307/1445724.
Harris, C. L. (1992). Concepts In Zoology. HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
Hayes, T. B., Collins, A., Lee, M., Mendoza, M., Noriega, N., Stuart, A. A., & Vonk, A. (2002). Hermaphroditic, demasculinized frogs after exposure to the herbicide atrazine at low ecologically relevant doses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99(8), 5476–5480. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.082121499/ASSET/32EA9B5E-B4F9-4857-8D5B-1A9166729B0C/ASSETS/GRAPHIC/PQ0821214004.JPEG.
Hurme, K. J. (2011). Parental care and tadpole schooling in the Neotropical Frog, Leptodactylus insularum. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Jacobson, B., Rogelio Cedeño-Vázquez, J., Espinoza-Avalos, J., & González-Solís, D. (2019). The effect of diet on growth and metamorphosis of Triprion Petasatus (Anura: Hylidae) Tadpoles. Herpetological Conservation and Biology, 14(2), 308–324.
Jefferson, D. M., Hobson, K. A., & Chivers, D. P. (2014a). Time to feed: How diet, competition, and experience may influence feeding behaviour and cannibalism in wood frog tadpoles Lithobates sylvaticus. Current Zoology, 60(5), 571–580.
Jefferson, D. M., Hobson, K. A., Demuth, B. S., Ferrari, M. C. O., & Chivers, D. P. (2014b). Frugal cannibals: How consuming conspecific tissues can provide conditional benefits to wood frog tadpoles (Lithobates sylvaticus). Naturwissenschaften, 101(4), 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00114-014-1156-4/METRICS.
John, K. R., & Fusaro, J. M. (1981). Growth and metamorphosis of solitary Rana pipiens tadpoles in confined space. Copeia, 1981(3), 737. https://doi.org/10.2307/1444591.
Jr., C. H., Roberts, L., Keen, S., Larson, A., & Eisenhour, D. (2009). Animal diversity (5th Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Kearney, B. D., Byrne, P. G., & Reina, R. D. (2016). Short-and long-term consequences of developmental saline stress: impacts on anuran respiration and behaviour. The Royal Society Open Science. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150640.
Kirschner L. B. (1983). Sodium chloride absorption across the body surface: frog skins and other epithelia. The American journal of physiology, 244(4), R429–R443. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1983.244.4.R429.
Klein, B., Regnet, R. A., Krings, M., & Rödder, D. (2021). Larval development and morphology of six Neotropical poison-dart frogs of the genus Ranitomeya (Anura: Dendrobatidae) based on captive-raised specimens. Bonn Zoological Bulletin, 69(2), 191–223. https://doi.org/10.20363/BZB-2020.69.2.191.
Köhler, G., & Thammachoti, P. (2023). Comparative study of the larval development of four anuran species from the Khorat Plateau, Thailand. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 71, 26–50. https://doi.org/10.26107/RBZ-2023-0003.
Kupferberg, S. J. (1997). The role of larval diet in anuran metamorphosis. American Zoologist, 37(2),146–159. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/37.2.146.
Kuroshima, S., & Tominaga, A. (2021). Normal development of an aquatic spawning Tree Frog, Buergeria japonica (Amphibia: Rhacophoridae). Current Herpetology, 40(2). https://doi.org/10.5358/hsj.40.169.
Langley, L. (2023). Cannibalism in animals is more common than you think. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/cannibalism-common-leopards-fish-invertebrates Accessed 19 October 2023.
Laurila, A., & Kujasalo, J. (1999). Habitat duration, predation risk and phenotypic plasticity in common frog (Rana temporaria) tadpoles. Journal of Animal Ecology, 68(6), 1123–1132. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-2656.1999.00354.X.
Leips, J., & Travis, J. (1994). Metamorphic responses to changing food levels in two species of Hylid Frogs. Ecology, 75(5), 1345–1356. https://doi.org/10.2307/1937459.
Lukas, P. (2021). Larval cranial anatomy of the Eastern Ghost Frog (Heleophryne orientalis). Acta Zoologica, 102(4), 452–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/azo.12352.
Macedo, A. D., & Garwood, J. (2023). Larval life history of Coastal Tailed Frogs (Ascaphus truei) across an elevational gradient in Northern California: Implications for a Changing Climate. Article in Journal of Herpetology. https://doi.org/10.1607/21-073.
Maciel, T. A., & Juncá, F. A. (2009). Effects of temperature and volume of water on the growth and development of tadpoles of Pleurodema diplolister and Rhinella granulosa (Amphibia: Anura). Zoologia (Curitiba), 26(3), 413–418. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-46702009000300005.
McDiarmid, R., & Altig, R. (1999). Tadpoles: The biology of anuran larvae. The University Of Chicago Press.
Merilä, J., Laurila, A., Pahkala, M., Räsänen, K., & Timenes Laugen, A. (2016). Adaptive phenotypic plasticity in timing of metamorphosis in the common frog Rana temporaria. Ecoscience, 7(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/11956860.2000.11682566.
Miyata, K., & Ose, K. (2012). Thyroid Hormone-disrupting effects and the amphibian metamorphosis assay. Journal of Toxicologic Pathology, 25(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1293/TOX.25.1.
Modak, N., Chunekar, H., & Padhye, A. (2018). Life history of Western Ghats endemic and threatened anuran – Matheran leaping frog, (Indirana leithii) with notes on its feeding preferences. Journal of Natural History, 52(27–28), 1745–1761. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222933.2018.1488008.
Montaña, C. G., Silva, S. D. G. T. M., Hagyari, D., Wager, J., Tiegs, L., Sadeghian, C., Schriever, T. A., & Schalk, C. M. (2019). Revisiting “what do tadpoles really eat?” A 10‐year perspective. Freshwater Biology, 64(12), 2269–2282. https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.13397.
Moore, M. K., & Klerks, P. L. (1998). Interactive effect of high temperature and low pH on sodium flux in tadpoles. Journal of Herpetology, 32(4), 588–592. https://doi.org/10.2307/1565217.
Morrison, C., & Hero, J. M. (2003). Geographic variation in life-history characteristics of amphibians: a review. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72(2), 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-2656.2003.00696.X.
Mueller, C. A., Augustine, S., Kooijman, S. A. L. M., Kearney, M. R., & Seymour, R. S. (2012). The trade-off between maturation and growth during accelerated development in frogs. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 163(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CBPA.2012.05.190.
Murakami, Y. (2021). Brief note on the life cycle of amphibians. Entomology, Ornithology & Herpetology: Current Research, 10(10), 1–1.
Nascimento, F. A. C., Aguilar, A. V., Pansonato, A., Lisboa, B. S., & Vilela, B. (2022). Reproductive notes and larval development of Macrogenioglottus alipioi (Anura: Odontophrynidae) from the northern Atlantic forest. Phyllomedusa, 21(2), 181–203. https://doi.org/10.11606/ISSN.2316-9079.V21I2P181-203.
Newman, R. A. (1992). Adaptive plasticity in amphibian metamorphosis. BioScience, 42(9), 671–678. https://doi.org/10.2307/1312173.
Nicieza, A. G., Álvarez, D., & Atienza, E. M. S. (2006). Delayed effects of larval predation risk and food quality on anuran juvenile performance. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 19(4), 1092–1103. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1420-9101.2006.01100.X.
Orizaola, G. N., & Laurila, A. (n.d.). Intraspecific variation of temperature-induced effects on metamorphosis in the pool frog (Rana lessonae). https://doi.org/10.1139/Z09-045.
Paul, B., Sterner, Z. R., Buchholz, D. R., Shi, Y. B., & Sachs, L. M. (2022). Thyroid and corticosteroid signaling in amphibian metamorphosis. Cells, 11(10), 1595. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11101595.
Pad, A. D., And, H., & Ghate, H. V. (1988). Effect of altered pH on embryos and tadoles of the frog Microhyla ornata. Herpetological Journal, 1(07), 276-279.
Padiath, Q. S. (2023). Genes and chromosomes. MSD Manual Consumer Version. https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/fundamentals/genetics/genes-and-chromosomes Accessed 19 October 2023.
Phuge, S. K. (2017). High temperatures influence sexual development differentially in male and female tadpoles of the Indian skipper frog, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis. Journal of Biosciences, 42(3), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12038-017-9689-2.
Pigliucci, M., Murren, C. J., & Schlichting, C. D. (2006). Phenotypic plasticity and evolution by genetic assimilation. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 209(12), 2362–2367. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02070.
Pough, F. H. (1976). Acid precipitation and embryonic mortality of Spotted Salamanders, Ambystoma maculatum. Science, 192(4234), 68–70. https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.3852.
Qian, T., Li, Y., Chen, J., Li, P., & Yang, D. (2023). Tadpoles of four sympatric megophryinid frogs (Anura, Megophryidae, Megophryinae) from Mangshan in southern China. ZooKeys, 1139, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1139.81641.
Qiang, D., Jian-Hong, D., Cheng, L., Zhi-Jun, L., & Yue-Zhao, W. (2004). Anti-predator behavior of tadpoles of Rana daunchina to a novel crawfish (Procambarus clarkii). Biodiversity Science, 12(5), 481. https://doi.org/10.17520/BIODS.2004059.
Ra¨sa¨nen, K., Ra¨sa, R., Ra¨sa¨nen, R., Laurila, A., Merila¨3, J., & Merila¨3, M. (2003). Geographic variation in acid stress tolerance of the moor frog, Rana arvalis. I. Local adaptation. Evolution, 57(2), 352–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.0014-3820.2003.TB00269.X.
RÄsänen, K., Laurila, A., & Merilä, J. (2002). Carry-over effects of embryonic acid conditions on development and growth of Rana temporaria tadpoles. Freshwater Biology, 47(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-2427.2002.00777.X.
Relyea, R. A. (2001). The lasting effects of adaptive plasticity: Predator-induced tadpoles become Long-Legged Frogs. Ecology, 82(7), 1947. https://doi.org/10.2307/2680059.
Relyea, R. A. (2002). Competitors-induced plasticity in tadpoles: consequences, cues, and connections to predator-induced plasticity. Ecological Monographs, 72(4), 523–540.
Relyea, R. A., & Diecks, N. (2008). An unforeseen chain of events: Lethal effects of pesticides on frogs at sublethal concentrations. Ecological Applications, 18(7), 1728–1742. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0454.1.
Richter‐Boix, À., Orizaola, G., & Laurila, A. (2014). Transgenerational phenotypic plasticity links breeding phenology with offspring life-history. Ecology, 95(10), 2715–2722. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-1996.1.
Richter-Boix, A., Llorente, Gustavo A., & Montori, A. (2006). Effects of phenotypic plasticity on post-metamorphic traits during pre-metamorphic stages in the anuran Pelodytes punctatus. Evolutionary Ecology Research, 8(2), 309–320.
Rödder, D., & Behr, N. (2014). Larval development stages and husbandry of the Rice Frog Microhyla mukhlesuri Hasan et al., 2014 (Anura: Microhylidae). Bonn zoological Bulletin, 67(2), 109-116. https://doi.org/10.20363/BZB-2018.67.2.109.
Rojas, B., Devillechabrolle, J., & Endler, J. A. (2014). Paradox lost: Variable colour-pattern geometry is associated with differences in movement in aposematic frogs. Biology Letters, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.1098/RSBL.2014.0193.
Rowley, J.. Frog sex. The Australian Museum. (2017). https://australian.museum/blog/science/frog-sex/#:~:text=In%20most%20frog%20species%2C%20males,call%20of%20their%20own%20species. Accessed 19 October 2023.
Rose, C. S. (2005). Integrating ecology and developmental biology to explain the timing of frog metamorphosis. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20(3), 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TREE.2005.01.005.
Ruthsatz, K., Dausmann, K. H., Reinhardt, S., Robinson, T., Sabatino, N. M., Peck, M. A., & Glos, J. (2020). Post-metamorphic carry-over effects of altered thyroid hormone level and developmental temperature: physiological plasticity and body condition at two life stages in Rana temporaria. Journal of Comparative Physiology, 190(3), 297–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00360-020-01271-8.
Sachs, L. M., & Buchholz, D. R. (2019). Insufficiency of thyroid hormone in frog metamorphosis and the role of glucocorticoids. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10, 287. https://doi.org/10.3389/FENDO.2019.00287/BIBTEX.
Saha, B. K., & Gupta, B. B. P. (2011). The development and metamorphosis of endangered frog, Rana leptoglossa (Cope, 1868). International Journal of Advanced Biological Research, 1(1), 67–76.
Sanzo, D., & Hecnar, S. J. (2006). Effects of road de-icing salt (NaCl) on larval wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) Road salts have toxic effects on amphibians at environmentally realistic concentrations. Environmental Pollution, 140(2), 247–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.07.013.
Kupferberg, S. J. (1997) The role of larval diet in anuran metamorphosis. American Zoologist, 37(2),146–159. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/37.2.146.
Sarasola-Puente, V., Gosá, A., Oromí, N., Madeira, M. J., & Lizana, M. (2011). Growth, size and age at maturity of the agile frog (Rana dalmatina) in an Iberian Peninsula population. Zoology, 114(3), 150–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zool.2010.11.009.
Schmidt, B. R., Hödl, W., & Schaub, M. (2012). From metamorphosis to maturity in complex life cycles: equal performance of different juvenile life history pathways. Ecology, 93(3), 657–667. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-0892.1.
Semlitsch, R. D., Scott, D. E., & Pechmann, H. K. (1988). Time and size at metamorphosis related to adult fitness in Ambystoma talpoideum. Ecology, 69(1), 184–192. https://doi.org/10.2307/1943173.
Schivo, F., Bauni, V., Krug, P., & Quintana, R. D. (2019). Distribution and richness of amphibians under different climate change scenarios in a subtropical region of South America. Applied Geography, 103, 70–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2019.01.003.
Shu, L., Laurila, A., & Räsänen, K. (2015). Acid stress mediated adaptive divergence in ion channel function during embryogenesis in Rana arvalis. Nature Publishing Group, 5, 14201. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14201.
Smith, G. R., Krishnamurthy, S. V., Burger, A. C., & Mills, L. B. (2011). Differential effects of malathion and nitrate exposure on American toad and wood frog tadpoles. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 60(2), 327–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00244-010-9559-5/METRICS.
Smith, K. G. (2005). Effects of nonindigenous tadpoles on native tadpoles in Florida: evidence of competition. Biological Conservation, 123(4), 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOCON.2005.01.005.
Steinwascher, K. (1978). Interference and exploitation competition among tadpoles of rana utricularia. Ecology, 59(5), 1039–1046. https://doi.org/10.2307/1938556.
Stevens, D. J. (2004). Pupal development temperature alters adult phenotype in the speckled wood butterfly, Pararge aegeria. Journal of Thermal Biology, 29(4–5), 205–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JTHERBIO.2004.02.005.
Stuart, S., Hoffmann, M., Chanson, J., Cox, N., Berridge, R., Ramani, P., & Young, B. (2008). Threatened Amphibian of the World (1st ed.). IUCN, Conservation International and Lynx Edicions.
Stückler, S., Ringler, M., Pašukonis, A., Weinlein, S., Hödl, W., & Ringler, E. (2019). Spatio-temporal characteristics of the prolonged courtship in brilliant-thighed poison frogs, Allobates femoralis. Herpetologica, 75(4), 268–279. https://doi.org/10.1655/Herpetologica-D-19-00010.1.
Sumida, M., Islam, M. M., Igawa, T., Kurabayashi, A., Furukawa, Y., Sano, N., Fujii, T., & Yoshizaki, N. (2016). The first see-through frog created by breeding: Description, inheritance patterns, and dermal chromatophore structure. Scientific Reports, 6. https://doi.org/10.1038/SREP24431.
Tanaka, K., & Nishikawa, K. (2022). Developmental stages of Lotic-breeding Toad, Bufo torrenticola, with a Comparison to Lentic-breeding B. japonicus formosus (Amphibia: Anura: Bufonidae). Current Herpetology, 41(1), 8–23. https://doi.org/10.5358/hsj.41.8.
Teasdale, P., Hendry, L. (n.d.). How to find frogspawn, tadpoles and froglets. Natural History Museum. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/frogspawn-tadpoles-and-froglets.html Accessed 19 October 2023.
Tejedo, M., Marangoni, F., Pertoldi, C., Richter-Boix, A., Laurila, A., Orizaola, G., Nicieza, A. G., Álvarez, D., & Gomez-Mestre, I. (2010). Contrasting effects of environmental factors during larval stage on morphological plasticity in post-metamorphic frogs. Climate Research, 43(1–2), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.3354/CR00878.
Thambirajah, A. A., Koide, E. M., Imbery, J. J., & Helbing, C. C. (2019). Contaminant and environmental influences on thyroid hormone action in amphibian metamorphosis. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00276.
Thompson, C. M., & Popescu, V. D. (2021). Complex hydroperiod induced carryover responses for survival, growth, and endurance of a pond-breeding amphibian. Oecologia, 195(4), 1071–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00442-021-04881-3/METRICS.
Toft, C. A. (1985). Resource partitioning in amphibians and reptiles. Copeia, 1985(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.2307/1444785.
Townsend, D. S., Stewart, M. M., & Pough, F. H. (1984). Male parental care and its adaptive significance in a neotropical frog. Animal Behaviour, 32(2), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(84)80278-X.
Trachantong, W., Promya, J., Saenphet, S., & Saenphet, K. (2013). Effects of atrazine herbicide on metamorphosis and gonadal development of Hoplobatrachus rugulosus. Maejo Int. J. Sci. Technol, 7, 60–71.
Traijitt, T., Kitana, N., Khonsue, W., & Kitana, J. (2021). Chronological changes in the somatic development of Hoplobatrachus rugulosus (Wiegmann, 1834) (Anura: Dicroglossidae). Tropical Natural History, 21(1), 184-199.
Uchiyama, M., & Yoshizawa, H. (1992). Salinity tolerance and structure of external and internal gills in tadpoles of the crab-eating frog, Rana cancrivora. Cell and Tissue Research, 267(1), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00318689.
Upton, R., Clulow, S., Mahony, M., & Clulow, J. (2018). Generation of a sexually mature individual of the Eastern dwarf tree frog, Litoria fallax, from cryopreserved testicular macerates: proof of capacity of cryopreserved sperm derived offspring to complete development. Conservation Physiology, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coy043.
Urbina, J., Bredeweg, E. M., Cousins, C., Blaustein, A. R., & Garcia, T. S. (2020). Reproductive characteristics of American bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) in their invasive range of the Pacific Northwest, USA. Scientific Report, 10(16271). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73206-w.
Vassilieva, A. B., & Nguyen, T. Van. (2023). Restricting living space: Development and larval morphology in sticky frogs (Microhylidae: Kalophrynus) with different reproductive modes. Vertebrate Zoology, 73. https://doi.org/10.3897/vz.73.e98618.
Vidal-García, M., Byrne, P. G., Roberts, J. D., & Keogh, J. S. (2014). The role of phylogeny and ecology in shaping morphology in 21 genera and 127 species of Australo-Papuan myobatrachid frogs. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 27(1), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/JEB.12292.
Viertel, B. (1999). Salt tolerance of Rana temporaria: spawning site selection and survival during embryonic development (Amphibia, Anura). Amphibia-Reptilia, 20(2), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853899X00178.
Vitt, L. J., & Caldwell, J. P. (2008). An introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles. In Herpetology: An introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374346-6.X0001-6.
Vodrážková, M., Šetlíková, I., Navrátil, J., & Berec, M. (2022). Different time patterns of the presence of red-eared slider influence the ontogeny dynamics of common frog tadpoles. Scientific Report, 12(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11561-6.
Wake, D. B., & Koo, M. S. (2018). Current biology magazine amphibians.
Walsh, P. T., Downie, J. R., & Monaghan, P. (2008). Predation-induced plasticity in metamorphic duration in Xenopus laevis. Functional Ecology, 22(4), 699–705. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2435.2008.01429.X.
Welch, A. M., Bralley, J. P., Reining, A. Q., & Infante, A. M. (2019). Developmental stage affects the consequences of transient salinity exposure in toad tadpoles. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 59(4), 1114–1127. https://doi.org/10.1093/ICB/ICZ109.
Weygoldt, P. (2009). Evolution of parental care in dart poison frogs (Amphibia: Anura: Dendrobatidae). Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 25(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0469.1987.tb00913.x.
Wijethunga, U., Greenlees, M., & Shine, R. (2015). The acid test: pH tolerance of the eggs and larvae of the invasive Cane Toad (Rhinella marina) in Southeastern Australia. https://doi.org/10.1086/681263.
Wilbur, H. M. (1990). Coping with chaos: Toads in ephemeral ponds. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 5(2), 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(90)90043-D.
Zachariah, A., Kurian Abraham, R., Das, S., Jayan, K. C., & Altig, R. (2012). A detailed account of the reproductive strategy and developmental stages of Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis (Anura: Nasikabatrachidae), the only extant member of an archaic frog lineage. Zootaxa, 3510, 53–64.
Zartman, J. J., & Shvartsman, S. Y. (2010). Unit operations of tissue development: Epithelial folding. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, 1, 231. https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-CHEMBIOENG-073009-100919.
Zaya, R. M., Amini, Z., Whitaker, A. S., Kohler, S. L., & Ide, C. F. (2011). Atrazine exposure affects growth, body condition and liver health in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Aquatic Toxicology, 104(3–4), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AQUATOX.2011.04.021.
Zheng, Y. (2021). Suction anchoring with an umbelliform oral disc by the surface-feeding tadpole of Brachytarsophrys chuannanensis Fei et al., 2001. Herpetology Notes, 14, 557–561.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Khairunnisa Shahrum Nizam, Nor Azliza Ismail, Farah Ayuni Farinordin, Nur Amalina Mohd Izam
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
